ספרות ומקורות

Burdinsky, Beckett (2026).
Harvesting Prestige: The Elite Romanticization of Agricultural Labour in Roman Mosaics
Keywords: Roman Mosaics • Agricultural Labour • Elite Prestige • Landownership • Rural Economy • Visual Representation • Social Hierarchy

Kondoleon, Christine (2016).
Introduction, in Alexis Belis, Roman Mosaics in the J. Paul Getty Museum
Keywords: Roman Mosaics • Visual Communication • Spatial Context • Viewer Interaction • Domestic Space • Elite Identity • Mosaic Placement

Mallon, Kilian (2021).
Taskscapes, Landscapes, and the Politics of Agricultural Production in Roman Mosaics
Keywords: Roman Mosaics • Agricultural Production • Taskscape • Communication Strategies • Rural Labour • Elite Ideology • Landownership

Ürkmez, Özden (2025).
Rustical Villa Lifestyle in Roman Mosaic Art
Keywords: Villa Rustica • Roman Mosaics • Agriculture • Animal Husbandry • Estate Management • Production Networks • Trade Networks

Bowersock, Glen W. (2004).
Response to L. Di Segni, JRA Suppl. 49, 91–97: The Mosaic Inscription in the Nile Festival Building at Sepphoris
Keywords: Sepphoris • Nile Festival Building • Mosaic Inscription • Procopius • Chronology • Byzantine Palestine

Di Segni, Leah (2005).
The Mosaic Inscription in the Nile Festival Building at Sepphoris
Keywords: Sepphoris • Nile Festival Building • Greek Inscription • Chronology • Epigraphy • Byzantine Palestine

Herodotus.
Histories, Book II
Keywords: Nile • Egypt • Nile Sources • Elephantine • Inundation • Ancient Geography

Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Hippopotami in Ancient Egypt
Keywords: Hippopotamus • Ancient Egypt • Nile • Fertility • Water • Egyptian Religion

Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Hapi, God of the Nile Inundation
Keywords: Hapi • Nile Inundation • Ancient Egypt • Fertility • Nile • Egyptian Religion

Netzer, Ehud & Weiss, Zeev (1992).
New Mosaic Art from Sepphoris
Keywords: Sepphoris • Nile Festival • Nile Mosaic • Nilometer • Alexandria • Byzantine Mosaic

Oxford – Cult of Saints in Late Antiquity (E04407).
Floor Mosaic with a Greek Verse Inscription from Sepphoris
Keywords: Sepphoris • Greek Inscription • Prokopios • Nile Festival Building • Chronology • Late Antiquity

UCL Digital Egypt for Universities.
Hymn to the Nile Flood
Keywords: Nile Inundation • Hapi • Ancient Egypt • Agriculture • Fertility • Egyptian Religion

Caneva, Giulia (2010).
Il Codice Botanico di Augusto: Roma, Ara Pacis: Parlare al Popolo Attraverso le Immagini della Natura / The Augustus Botanical Code: Rome, Ara Pacis: Speaking to the People through the Images of Nature
Gangemi Editore, Rome. ISBN 978-88-492-1933-3.
Keywords: Ara Pacis • Augustus • Roman Plant Iconography • Botanical Identification • Plant Morphology • Botanical Code • Ancient Roman Art • Phytoiconology

Caneva, Giulia, and Lorenza Bohuny (2003).
Botanic Analysis of Livia’s Villa Painted Flora (Prima Porta, Roma)
Journal of Cultural Heritage 4(2): 149–155.
Keywords: Villa of Livia • Prima Porta • Roman Garden Painting • Botanical Identification • Painted Flora • Plant Morphology • Roman Gardens • Mediterranean Vegetation

Caneva, Giulia, Alessandra Monaco, Paola Virgili, and Fabio Bartoli (2019).
“Re-flowering Flowers”: The Hope of an Eternal Blooming since Roman Times
Flora Mediterranea 29: 27–44.
Keywords: Roman Plant Iconography • Ara Pacis • Floral Motifs • Plant Morphology • Botanical Identification • Greek-Roman Art • Phytoiconology • Ancient Monuments

Kumbaric, Alma, and Giulia Caneva (2014).
Updated Outline of Floristic Richness in Roman Iconography
Rendiconti Lincei: Scienze Fisiche e Naturali 25: 181–193.
Keywords: Roman Iconography • Floristic Richness • Botanical Identification • Plant Archaeology • Nature Representation • Phytoiconology • Roman Sculpture • Roman Painting

Ovadiah, Asher, and Sonia Mucznik (2014).
The Symbolic Significance of the Menorah
Liber Annuus 64: 603–614.
Keywords: Menorah • Jewish Iconography • Jewish Identity • Late Antiquity • Synagogue Art • Temple Implements • Religious Symbols • Mosaic Pavements

Abdel Naiem, Enas Bahi ElDin (2016).
Bear in Ancient Egypt from Predynastic Periods till the New Kingdom Period
Journal of General Union of Arab Archaeologists, 17, pp. 84–97.
Keywords: Ancient Egypt • Syrian Brown Bear • Predynastic Period • New Kingdom • Animal Trade • Hunting • Tribute • Egyptian Fauna

Bashford, Lydia (2018).
The Bare Essentials: The Representation of Brown Bears in Ancient Egypt
Paper presented at the International Society for Anthrozoology Conference, Macquarie University.
Keywords: Ancient Egypt • Syrian Brown Bear • Zoological Accuracy • Animal Representation • Egyptian Art • Human–Animal Interaction • Archaeozoology

Babylonian Talmud.
Avodah Zarah 11a
Berakhot 57b
Keywords: Rabbi Judah HaNasi • Antoninus • Agricultural Wealth • Seasonal Produce • Radish • Lettuce • Cucumbers • Roman Palestine • Food Supply

Carandini, Andrea; Ricci, Andreina; and De Vos, Mariette (1982).
Filosofiana: La Villa di Piazza Armerina. Immagine di un aristocratico romano al tempo di Costantino
Palermo: S. F. Flaccovio.
Keywords: Piazza Armerina • Villa Romana del Casale • Roman Aristocracy • Late Roman Villa • Great Hunt Mosaic • Agricultural Estate • Roman Economy • Mosaic Interpretation

Italian Ministry of Culture – UNESCO Office.
Piazza Armerina: Villa Romana del Casale
Keywords: Piazza Armerina • Villa Romana del Casale • Great Hunt Mosaic • Roman Economy • Domestic Life • Animal Capture • North African Mosaicists • UNESCO

Omar, Dalia Mohamed Soliman Abdel Meguid (2022).
Bears in Ancient Egypt
Journal of the Faculty of Tourism and Hotels, Mansoura University, 11(4), pp. 237–275.
Keywords: Ancient Egypt • Bears • Syrian Brown Bear • Tribute • Offerings • Animal Importation • Royal Menageries • Egyptian Art

Parodo, Ciro (2019).
In Africano orbe quasi Roma: Mosaici dei mesi e autorappresentazione dell’aristocrazia romana a Cartagine tra IV e V sec. d.C.
Cartagine. Studi e Ricerche, 4.
Full Text: University of Cagliari Repository
Keywords: Carthage • Roman Africa • Late Antique Mosaics • Agricultural Activities • Aristocratic Self-Representation • Rural Estates • Economic Prosperity • Mosaics of the Months

Pensabene, Patrizio, and Barresi, Paolo (2019).
I mosaici e le pitture della Villa del Casale: un linguaggio per immagini
In Piazza Armerina, Villa del Casale: Scavi e studi nel decennio 2004–2014, pp. 5–93. Rome: L’Erma di Bretschneider.
Alternative Record: Torrossa Digital Library
Keywords: Piazza Armerina • Villa Romana del Casale • Mosaic Program • Visual Language • Great Hunt Mosaic • Roman Daily Life • Agricultural Production • Late Antiquity

UNESCO World Heritage Centre.
Villa Romana del Casale
Keywords: Villa Romana del Casale • Piazza Armerina • Roman Rural Estate • Late Roman Mosaics • Agricultural Economy • Cultural Landscape • UNESCO World Heritage

Bashford, Lydia (2018).
The Bare Essentials: The Representation of Brown Bears in Ancient Egypt
Keywords: Syrian Brown Bear • Ancient Egypt • Egyptian Art • Animal Importation • Levantine Fauna • Royal Tribute

Bomgardner, David L. (1992).
The Trade in Wild Beasts for Roman Spectacles: A Green Perspective
Anthropozoologica 16: 161–166.
Keywords: Roman Spectacles • Wild Animal Trade • Venationes • Amphitheatres • Animal Transport • Roman Economy

Carandini, Andrea; Ricci, Andreina; and de Vos, Mariette (1982).
Filosofiana: La Villa del Casale di Piazza Armerina – Immagine di un aristocratico romano al tempo di Costantino
Palermo.
Keywords: Villa Romana del Casale • Piazza Armerina • Great Hunt Mosaic • Roman Aristocracy • Sicily • Late Roman Economy

Houston, Jordon A. (2024).
Exotics for Entertainment: A Reconstruction of the Roman Exotic Beast Trade (First to Third Centuries AD)
Theoretical Roman Archaeology Journal 7.
Keywords: Exotic Animal Trade • Roman Spectacles • Venationes • Animal Transport • Hunter Troupes • Roman Empire

Janick, Jules; Paris, Harry S.; and Parrish, David C. (2007).
The Cucurbits of Mediterranean Antiquity: Identification of Taxa from Ancient Images and Descriptions
Annals of Botany 100: 1441–1457.
Keywords: Cucurbits • Ancient Agriculture • Melon • Fakous • Watermelon • Botanical Identification

Kitagawa, Chiori (2008).
The Status of Fallow Deer in Ancient Egypt: Autochthonous or Introduced?
In Archaeozoology of the Near East VIII, TMO 49, pp. 541–552. Lyon: Maison de l’Orient et de la Méditerranée.
Keywords: Fallow Deer • Ancient Egypt • Qantir • Pi-Ramesse • Eastern Nile Delta • Archaeozoology

MacKinnon, Michael (2006).
Supplying Exotic Animals for the Roman Amphitheatre Games: New Reconstructions Combining Archaeological, Ancient Textual, Historical and Ethnographic Data
Mouseion: Journal of the Classical Association of Canada 50: 137–161.
Keywords: Exotic Animals • Roman Amphitheatre • Venationes • Animal Supply • Transportation Networks • Roman Games

Marković, Nemanja; Rothschild, Bruce; Popović, Danijela; Bogdanović, Ivan; and Vuković, Sonja (2025).
A Spectacle of the Roman Amphitheatre at Viminacium: Multiproxy Analysis of a Brown Bear Skull
Antiquity 99(407): 1303–1319.
Keywords: Brown Bear • Roman Amphitheatre • Viminacium • Animal Captivity • Cage Chewing • Venationes

Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Syrians Bringing an Elephant and a Bear, Tomb of Rekhmire
Facsimile by Nina de Garis Davies; original from Thebes, Tomb of Rekhmire TT100, Dynasty 18.
Keywords: Rekhmire • Syrian Brown Bear • Levantine Tribute • Ancient Egypt • Exotic Animals • Egyptian Painting

Oppian (Second Century CE).
Cynegetica, Book 3.
In Mair, A. W. (trans.) (1928), Oppian, Colluthus, Tryphiodorus. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Keywords: Bear Capture • Wooden Cages • Animal Transport • Roman Hunting • Cynegetica • Captive Animals

Pensabene, Patrizio, and Gallocchio, Enrico.
The Villa del Casale of Piazza Armerina
University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology.
Keywords: Villa Romana del Casale • Piazza Armerina • Great Hunt Mosaic • Exotic Animals • Maritime Transport • Sicily

Pliny the Elder.
Natural History, Book 19
Keywords: Campanian Melon • Melopepo • Cucurbits • Roman Agriculture • Crop Innovation • Ancient Horticulture

Settis, Salvatore (1975).
Per l’interpretazione di Piazza Armerina
Mélanges de l’École française de Rome. Antiquité 87(2): 873–994.
Keywords: Piazza Armerina • Great Hunt Mosaic • Roman Aristocracy • Mosaic Interpretation • Animal Transport • Late Antiquity

Sneh, Amihai; Weissbrod, Tuvia; and Perath, Itzhak (1973).
Nile Delta: The Defunct Pelusiac Branch Identified
Science.
Keywords: Pelusiac Branch • Nile Delta • Paleochannels • Northeastern Egypt • Ancient Geography • River Reconstruction

Sparreboom, Alena (2016).
Venationes Africanae: Hunting Spectacles in Roman North Africa – Cultural Significance and Social Function
PhD dissertation, University of Amsterdam.
Keywords: Venationes Africanae • Roman North Africa • Amphitheatre Games • Wild Animal Trade • Hunting Spectacles • Mosaics

Tronchère, Hervé; Goiran, Jean-Philippe; Schmitt, Laurent; Preusser, Frank; Bietak, Manfred; Forstner-Müller, Irene; and Callot, Yann (2012).
Geoarchaeology of an Ancient Fluvial Harbour: Avaris and the Pelusiac Branch (Nile River, Egypt)
Géomorphologie: Relief, Processus, Environnement 18(1): 23–36.
Keywords: Avaris • Pelusiac Branch • Nile Harbour • Eastern Delta • Paleoenvironment • Geoarchaeology

Tsahar, Ella; Izhaki, Ido; Lev-Yadun, Simcha; and Bar-Oz, Guy (2009).
Distribution and Extinction of Ungulates during the Holocene of the Southern Levant
PLOS ONE 4(4): e5316.
Keywords: Southern Levant • Hartebeest • Ungulate Extinction • Archaeozoology • Holocene Fauna • Human Pressure

Wilson, R. J. A. (1983).
Piazza Armerina
London: Granada.
Keywords: Piazza Armerina • Villa Romana del Casale • Great Hunt Mosaic • Sicily • Roman Mosaics • Exotic Animals

Wolkowski, Uri; Horwitz, Liora Kolska; Di Crosta, Giulia; et al. (2025).
Taxonomic and Ecological Characterization of the Extinct Levantine Hartebeest, Alcelaphus buselaphus (Pallas, 1766) (Bovidae: Alcelaphini)
Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 205(3): zlaf153.
Keywords: Bubal Hartebeest • Ancient DNA • Halutza • Northern Negev • Levantine Fauna • Late Antiquity

Gorzalczany, Amir and Baruch Rosen (2019).
The Marine Scene in the Lod Mosaics
Journal of Mosaic Research 12, pp. 47–62.
Keywords: Lod Mosaic • Marine Scene • Roman Merchant Ships • Mediterranean Sea • Fish • Sea Monsters • Maritime Travel

Grzymski, Krzysztof A. (1997).
Pelusium: Gateway to Egypt
Archaeology, Archaeological Institute of America.
Keywords: Pelusium • Tell el-Farama • Eastern Nile Delta • Mediterranean Port • Customs Offices • Egypt–Palestine Trade • Roman Fortress • Nile Navigation

Lightfoot, Christopher S. (2010).
The Roman Mosaic from Lod, Israel
The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Keywords: Lod Mosaic • African Animals • Savanna Fauna • Rhinoceros • Giraffe • Elephant • Octagonal Medallion • Marine Panel

Netzer, Ehud and Zeev Weiss (1992).
New Mosaic Art from Sepphoris
Biblical Archaeology Review 18(6), pp. 36–43.
Keywords: Sepphoris • Nile Festival Mosaic • Hebrew University Excavations • Nilometer • Alexandria • Nile Flood • Hunting Scenes • Byzantine Mosaic

Talgam, Rina (2013).
Unearthing a Masterpiece—A Roman Mosaic from Lod, Israel
Expedition Magazine 55(1).
Keywords: Lod Mosaic • Roman Villa • North African Influence • Merchant Ships • Exotic Animals • Local Mosaic Artists • Roman Palestine

Weiss, Zeev and Ehud Netzer (1996).
The Mosaics of the Nile Festival Building
In E. M. Meyers, Z. Weiss, C. L. Meyers and R. Martin Nagy (eds.), Sepphoris in Galilee: Crosscurrents of Culture, Raleigh: North Carolina Museum of Art, pp. 127–131.
Keywords: Sepphoris • Nile Festival Building • Nilotic Mosaic • Nile God • Personification of Egypt • Alexandria • Nilometer • Byzantine Art

Avital, Anat (2014).
הגידולים והכלים החקלאיים בפסיפסים מן התקופות הרומית המאוחרת והביזנטית מארץ ישראל
Doctoral dissertation, Department of Land of Israel Studies and Archaeology, Bar-Ilan University. Research volume and corpus volume.
Alternative record: Bar-Ilan University Research Portal
Keywords: Agricultural Crops • Agricultural Tools • Roman Mosaics • Byzantine Mosaics • Land of Israel • Mosaic Corpus • Ancient Agriculture

Avital, Anat, and Harry S. Paris (2014).
Cucurbits Depicted in Byzantine Mosaics from Israel, 350–600 CE
Annals of Botany 114(2): 203–222.
DOI: 10.1093/aob/mcu106
Keywords: Cucurbits • Cucumis melo • Citrullus lanatus • Luffa aegyptiaca • Lagenaria siceraria • Byzantine Mosaics • Crop History • Ancient Agriculture

Avital, Anat (2015).
העיטור בפרחי שושן צחור באמנות היהודית של תקופת הבית השני
מורשת ישראל 12: 41–52.
English version: The Decoration of Madonna Lily Flowers in Jewish Art of the Second Temple Period
Keywords: Madonna Lily • Lilium candidum • Jewish Art • Second Temple Period • Floral Decoration • Botanical Identification • Ossuaries

Avital, Anat (2015).
העיטורים הצמחיים באמנות היהודית של תקופת הבית השני ועד מרד בר כוכבא
חידושים בחקר ירושלים 21: 237–256.
Keywords: Plant Decorations • Jewish Art • Second Temple Period • Bar Kokhba Revolt • Botanical Identification • Jerusalem • Ancient Art

Avital, Anat (2015).
ריבוי עצי פרי באמצעות הרכבה: תיאורים בפסיפסים מהתקופה הביזנטית
קתדרה 157: 33–52.
Keywords: Fruit Trees • Grafting • Tree Propagation • Byzantine Mosaics • Agricultural Technology • Pruning • Ancient Horticulture

Avital, Anat (2015).
מקוריותם של התיאורים החקלאיים הייחודיים מפסיפס בית הכנסת השומרוני בסמארה
מחקרי יהודה ושומרון 24: 145–163.
English version: The Originality of the Unique Agricultural Depictions in the Samaritan Synagogue Mosaic at Samara
Keywords: Samara Synagogue • Samaritan Mosaics • Agricultural Depictions • Mosaic Quality • Crops • Local Art • Byzantine Period

Avital, Anat (2015).
תיאורים חקלאיים בפסיפסי השומרון, בקעת הירדן, השרון והכרמל מן התקופות הרומית המאוחרת והביזנטית
במעבה ההר: מחקרי הר אפרים ובנימין 5: 209–230.
Keywords: Samaria • Jordan Valley • Sharon • Carmel • Agricultural Mosaics • Crops • Agricultural Tools • Byzantine Period

Avital, Anat, and Harry S. Paris (2015).
איורים של דלועיים בפסיפסי ארץ ישראל מן התקופה הביזנטית
יבול שיא 105, April 2015: 82–86.
Keywords: Cucurbits • Byzantine Mosaics • Melons • Watermelons • Luffa • Bottle Gourd • Ancient Agriculture

Avital, Anat (2015).
הגידולים והכלים החקלאיים בפסיפסים מהתקופות הרומית והביזנטית בארץ ישראל: תירבות צמחים ותולדות החקלאות
יבול שיא 109, July 2015: 52–54.
Keywords: Plant Domestication • Agricultural History • Roman Mosaics • Byzantine Mosaics • Agricultural Tools • Crops • Ancient Farming

Avital, Anat (2015).
עיצובים של אגסים בפסיפסים מן התקופות הרומית והביזנטית
יבול שיא 110, August 2015: 30–32.
Keywords: Pears • Pyrus communis • Fruit Trees • Roman Mosaics • Byzantine Mosaics • Ancient Horticulture • Crop History

Avital, Anat (2015).
עיצובים של אורן הצנובר בפסיפסים מן התקופות הרומית והביזנטית
יבול שיא 111, October 2015: 86–87.
Keywords: Stone Pine • Pinus pinea • Pine Cones • Roman Mosaics • Byzantine Mosaics • Ancient Agriculture • Edible Seeds

Avital, Anat (2015).
אספרג רפואי בפסיפסים מהתקופות הרומית והביזנטית
יבול שיא 112, November 2015: 48–49.
Keywords: Asparagus • Asparagus officinalis • Roman Mosaics • Byzantine Mosaics • Ancient Vegetables • Crop History • Kerioth Church

Avital, Anat (2016).
אתרוג בפסיפסים
יבול שיא 119, June 2016: 62–68.
Keywords: Citron • Citrus medica • Byzantine Mosaics • Ancient Agriculture • Fruit Cultivation • Jewish Mosaics • Botanical Identification

Avital, Anat (2017).
תיאורי חקלאות בפסיפסים מירושלים ויהודה בתקופות הרומית והביזנטית
חידושים בחקר ירושלים 22: 303–322.
Keywords: Jerusalem • Judea • Agricultural Depictions • Roman Mosaics • Byzantine Mosaics • Crops • Agricultural Economy

Avital, Anat (2022).
איורי עופות בפסיפסים מהתקופה הביזנטית ביהודה, בשומרון ובשרון
מחקרי יהודה ושומרון 31(2): 183–219.
DOI: 10.26351/JSRS/31-2/2
Keywords: Birds in Mosaics • Byzantine Mosaics • Judea • Samaria • Sharon • Bird Identification • Domestication • Falconry

Avital, Anat (2022).
היען בפסיפסים ביזנטיים בארץ ישראל
Information box in: Zohar Amar, “ישראל אהרֹני והיען הארצישראלי,” עת־מול 279: 14–17; information box on p. 17.
Keywords: Ostrich • Byzantine Mosaics • Caesarea • Huqoq • Petra Church • Ostrich Eggs • Bird Exploitation • Ancient Agriculture

Avital, Anat (2024).
יונקים ועופות ייחודיים מפסיפס בית האמידים הרומי בלוד
In: Alon Shavit (ed.), לוד דיוספוליס – עיר האלוהים: כתב עת להיסטוריה, לארכאולוגיה ולמורשת של לוד, Vol. 10: 99–121.
Keywords: Lod Mosaic • Roman Villa • Mammals • Birds • African Fauna • Bird Identification • Hunting • Maritime Scene

Avital, Anat (2026).
פסיפס כנסיית סטפנוס הקדוש הביזנטית מבאר שמע, המאה השישית לספירה: תיאורי פריון, חקלאות, ציד ובעלי חיים אקזוטיים – עדות לשפע, קשרים וסטטוס
Independent research publication.
English version: Byzantine Church Mosaic of Saint Stephen at Be’er Shema
Keywords: Be’er Shema • Saint Stephen Church • Byzantine Mosaic • Fertility • Agriculture • Hunting • Exotic Animals • African Fauna • International Trade